The role and function of the declaratory and constitutive theories of Essay

The role and function of the declaratory and constitutive theories of state recognition, in the international community, and having regard to the distinction be - Essay Example States are the most important â€Å"components of the international legal system†.2 In this regard, the 1933 Montevideo Convention provides a legal framework in international law for the necessary conditions for the acquisition of statehood3. The practice of customary international law and relations however, demonstrate that the institution of state recognition has an important role to play in the formation and acceptance of new entities calling themselves states. State recognition is also closely tied to the acceptance or refusal to accept what is essentially an unconstitutional change of government. While this aspect of statehood is not as important as state recognition, it nonetheless produces a series of consequences under international law, particularly the establishment of diplomatic relations and international personality. Unfortunately, the institution of state recognition is not firmly settled in international law. As a result, theoreticians and practitioners have developed two competing theories directly applicable to the institution of state recognition and its legal effect on statehood. These theories are known as the constitutive and declaratory theories and neither are capable of practical application in their pure form. The manner and degree to which each of these theories can be applied largely depends of extralegal factors. The result is, the international legal regime with respect to the conditions necessary for obtaining statehood is uncertain, unclear and unpredictable. Inevitably the aims and objectives of international law, which are to create a reliable and consistent body of law, is compromised. It is important to point out however, that international law is a relatively young and inconsistent body of law in which customary norms are not historical, but rather the actual source of law-making and for this reason, the practice is of far greater significance than in

Us. World History Essay Example for Free

Us. World History Essay 16. Consider the relationships and contact of European societies with Asia, Africa, and the New World from 1492 to 1914. What are the changes and continuities in these relationships? What did the Europeans want in each area of the world? How was the European trading systems different from the earlier systems involving Dar-Al-Islam? What effects did these contacts have on the Europeans? On the societies contacted? You might want to make a chart of these causes and effects. How did the patterns of world trade change from 1492 to 1914? The Europeans used the power of seas and oceans to control the export of specific products. They had products such as pepper, cinnamon, and nutmeg. They regulated commerce with Asian trading network that stretched from ports of the Red Sea to South China. Many European seafaring nations were involved in South and Southeast Asia and was based on trade. The European powers struggled to find the most profitable ways to get things that they wanted from Asia. Most of the Europeans went to Asia to find Christian converts instead of personal gain. Also some stayed to live in coastal enclaves, but trade and commercial profits let Europeans explore, fight in wars and have a hard time to live in Asia in nearly the first century of European overseas expansion. Africa also used their African coast to trade with China and the New World. 80 percent of Africans died in middle passage voyage from African to the New World. Many people died in trading because people began getting infected with disease and spread them. Everywhere in West Africa was the region influenced by trans-Atlantic slave trade. The East Coast of Africa traded along the Indian Ocean with many Ottoman Turks. Some continuities is that we use some of the same patterns of trading throughout 1492-1914. For example, we still use the availability of oceans and seas to trade along the coasts of countries. But there were many changes as well. During the 1800s and 1900s, technology became more advanced. This led to easier ways for trading. Africans traded for ivory, gold, and especially slaves, with the New World. The slaves were forced to go to the households to work. Some places that had many slaves are Arabia and many areas of the Middle East. Europeans also took many slaves. Europeans always needed slaves to go work on their plantation colony. The East African coast was the area that supplied the most slaves. They shipped the slaves off to any country that had something in return for the Africans. Europeans established many plantation style colonies on islands such as  Mauritius (located in the Indian Ocean) but they always depended on the East African Slave trade. Slavery became a prominent feature of the east African coast and the slave trade from the interior to these plantations and to the traditional slave markets of the Red Sea kept going till the end of the 19th century. The effect on the Europeans was that they were making many plantations and were able to make a lot of money with the other countries that they were in contact with because they traded their plantation for other expensive goods. Dar al Islam was different from Europe because in order for them to trade their plantation and crops, they had to work on it to make it grow. Unlike the Europeans, they have slaves doing the work for them. After the good results of the Europeans, other countries bought slaves, knowing that they would have more done, and more goods to trade. 17. The industrial revolution is a major concept in terms of the world history. What factors were necessary to have an industrial revolution? Where did it begin? Where did it spread? How did it change patterns of economic, social, and intellectual interaction? What advantages and disadvantages did it bring? Compare the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century with those brought by the movements toward Globalization of the twentieth century.. For an industrial revolution to take place Business Leaders, labor sources, natural resources, Inventions Innovations, and in Britain the 2nd Agricultural Rev, factory systems, economic philosophies, and capitalism + enlightenment ideas combined. The industrial revolution started in Britain with the 2nd agricultural revolution (Enclosure movement and Urbanization). The industrial revolution spread through much of Europe, especially Belgium, France, and Germany as well as Japan and the United States. Intellectual interactions increased with the spread of new ideas and a lot of new inventions to better life and contribute to the industrial revolution, such as the domestic system, the steam ship and the steam-powered locomotive. Patterns of economic and social interactions also increased by not in a good way, social the government controlled everything that society did and owned most of everything and economically patterns decreased among the population and focused to land owners or factory owners. Innovations such as the telephone, combustion engine, radio, airplane, the system of interchangeable parts and  the assembly line. The advantage was huge money to land owners and factory owners, new technologies making Britain, at the time, the hegemony. The disadvantage was that is cause massive poverty amongst the majority of the population, pollution and families being torn apart. The changes in the Industrial revolution brought great money and power to that country of the time, and eventually led the nation to be prosperous, although globalization now is making the world smaller, giving pollution causing environmental problems and making life economically dependent. 18. Make a list of the ways that the industrialization was related to the Imperialism and to Nationalism. Then illustrate each of the items on your list with examples from the experience of Russia, France, and the United States, Great Britain, the Ottoman Empire and Mexico. * Makes the people work together: In Europe, urbanization occurred and for the domestic system to work, people had to cooperate with each other. * Gave women a little bit of more rights: In Europe, women were allowed to work in factories but they were under horrible conditions. * Increased trade for foreign resources: Europe colonized nations on every other continent in the world to get raw materials. * Influenced ideas: Ideas came such as communism, socialism, neocolonialism, and Marxism * Brings more technologies: Some technologies that were developed was the flying shuttle which sped up the weaving process in 1733. In 1763, John Hargreaves invented the spinning Jenny which was capable of spinning vast amounts if thread. In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, which allowed massive amounts of cotton to be quickly processed in the Americas, and exported to Europe. Also, the telegraph which was invented in 1837 by Samuel Morse, allowed people to communicate across great distances within seconds. The telephone, which was invented in 1876 by Alexander Graham Bell. Thomas Edison invented the light bulb in 1879. The internal combustion engine was invented by 1885 by Gottlieb Daimler. Marconi Guglielmo invented the radio in 1890s and Orville and Wilbur Wright invented the airplane in 1903. * Helps the people: To all the countries that industrialized, this helped manual labor from the people to convert the labor into machines. * Rapid shift in economy: All economies boosted because of all the progress it made * Countries engage in war: Countries were getting more powerful and others wanted to be the  same. Some examples of wars because of nationalism were World War I and World War II. * Changes in social structure: Throughout history, the wealthy class was small and the poorest class was huge. But industrialism twisted it around, members of the working class saw factory owners gain wealth quickly – at their expense. The owners didn’t inherit their position, but achieved success by exploiting their workers, and the workers knew it. * Rebellions take place: They took place because of change. * 3 groups of people come about: Conservatives, Moderates, and Radicals. Conservatives don’t want change, Moderates are fine with whatever happens and Radicals want change. * Forces the country to gain a lot of power: the country gains a lot of wealth and tends to have more power and control over other countries created colonies. * Some countries gain independence: Countries in North and South America gain independence like America in 1783, Paraguay in 1811, Uruguay in 1811, Chile in 1826, Argentina in 1816, Ecuador in 1822, Colombia in 1815, and Venezuela in 1821. * Impact on environment: Industrial Revolution created pollution and gobbled up a lot of natural resources 19. Analyze changes in gender and social structure in the following regions: United States, France, China, India, Ottoman Empire/Turkey, and Brazil from 1750 to today. Throughout history the majority of societies were base upon male dominance, a patriarchal society. Usually this was because back in the stone ages many societies were nomads, or they were societies involved and agriculture and women were not looked at highly. This is because women were expected to stay home and cure for the kids or take care of the house while the males would go out and make sure there is food for the family when they get back and this is what made males more dominant over females knowing that without the males getting food survival would be extremely tough. However throughout time some societies became less agricultural such as the United States throughout times such as during World War I. During the war all the men were sent off to serve and fight for their country and the only people back home were females and eventually females started to run there own business and gain some sort of importance and if it weren’t for them the United States would’ve been in a completely different situation when the men returned home from war. In spite of the males having all the dominance over females when they returned home from war they expected women to give up what they have accomplished and hand  it over to the men. Of course it all seemed unfair to the women but there was not too much they could do, but this is how the societies change socially. The geography and society situations usually reflect upon the social structures within empires, kingdoms, countries etc. 20. Make a chart outlining the content, strengths, effects, and limitations of each of the following intellectual systems of thought: Adam Smith – The wealth of Nations Karl Marx – The communist Manifesto Isaac Newton – The Principia Explain why each of these works is the product of Western and Enlightment thinking. Intellectual systems:| Content:| Strength:| Effects:| Limitations:| Adam Smith- â€Å"The wealth of Nations†| Private ownership| Economic prosperity and fairness| A free market system| Governments were removed entirely from regulation (laissez-faire capitalism)| Karl Marx- â€Å"The communist Manifesto†| Working class could eventually revolt and take over means of production| Helped better the conditions of the workers and the amount of hours they worked | In England a group of workers called luddites destroyed equipment in the factories in the middle of the night to protest working conditions and pitiful wages| All the instruments of power- the government, the courts, the police, the church-were on the side of the rich against poor| Isaac Newton- â€Å"The Principia†| Where he invented calculus| Proved the theories of Copernicus, Galileo, Bacon, and others| Proved that the sun is the center of the universe| Helps scientists prove experiments but doesn’t necessarily mean or give the right answer | Each of these works is the product of Western and Enlightenment thinking as the Age of Enlightenment refers to a period of time in Western culture and philosophy where reason was advocated as the best and surest way to obtain the truth.

The Place of Morality and Government in Low Value Product Development :: Economics Economy Business Papers

The Place of Morality and Government in Low Value Product Development A company is fundamentally in business to make money. There are many so called "low value products" that could prove extremely beneficial to a large number of people, but are not likely to be profitable from an economic point of view. This situation creates a complex problem that incorporates economics, morality, private industry, individuals and government. It is always interesting and difficult when big business, government and ethics are thrown together, and this problem is no exception. First, it needs to be established whether the low value product the company is considering developing might not turn a profit, or if it definitely will not be profitable. If there is a reasonable hope that the product is at least a break-even proposition, the company is much more apt to consider it than if it is certainly going to result in the loss of money. All of this, including the moral aspects of the question, has to be understood within the context of economics. A company is simply not going to do something out of the good of "its" heart, just because it is "the right thing to do". A company must be convinced that by investing their time and money into a certain product's development, they will directly or indirectly profit from it. Thus, all incentives aimed at getting a private company to bring a product to market that will benefit the public, must in some way benefit the company. There is certainly a moral obligation for developed countries to at least attempt to assist those of the third world, but the burden may not lie with private industry. Before turning to the issue of how to get private industry to invest in low value products, the role of government needs to be explored. The government's role as a provider of incentives will be explored later, but it's also necessary to look at the possibility of government acting as the lone low value product developer, leaving private business out of it. This can be broken down even further: the governments of underdeveloped and developed countries providing for their own people, or the governments of developed countries providing for the common good of all countries. A government is set-up fundamentally to act for the common good of that nation's people. Thus, the government of a country, whether developed or third world, has a moral obligation to do everything in its power to provide for its people, including prov iding research funding for the development of these low value products.

Magic Realism: A Problem :: Essays Papers

Magic Realism: A Problem "Magic Realism" is a term used by critics to describe a mingling of the mundane with the fantastic. This may seem a straightforward enough approach unless one happens to be a student of postcolonial studies - or at least, a student of postcolonialism should smell a rat. A brief history of the term is required for us to see why the term should be deemed problematical. In 1925 Franz Roh, a German art critic, used the term to describe a new post-expressionistic form that was emerging. Essentially the art described as "magic realism" was realist but was simultaneously possessed of a strange or dreamlike quality. If one were to seek a literary analog - although it is probably better if one did not - the paintings were a non-verbal equivalent of defamiliarization. Essentially, the magic was derived from the painting technique employed by the associated artists rather than the actual content (ultimately it came to be viewed as a kind of down-market surrealism). Later, in 1955, Angel Flores applied the term (with some modification - he referred to it as "magical realism") to Spanish-American writing. Flores put forward Borges as the master of this form and suggested Kafka as a Eurpoean equivalent. In this caase magic realism was distinguished by the fact that its practitioners treated the fantastic as normal, without any sense of surprise or amazement. In summary one could say - somewhat tritely - that Flores' version of magic realism was Dickens with weirdness: 19th century realism dotted with fantastical moments beyond spontaneous human combustion. Gradually Flores' definition was expanded, yet simultaneously narrowed to include folkloric elements. However, this is an over-simplification of the case - these elements came to be regarded as essential. With folklore being considered an integral part of the genre, Borges could no longer be considered a magic realist (instead he could only be considered as part of fantastic literature - although he is now regarded as an essential if early cog in postmodernism's wheel). Perhaps the novel most commonly described as magic realist is Gabriel Garcia Marquez's One Hundred Years of Solitude. Yet, if one takes the definition as being strictly one which must include folklore, this novel too is shifted into the realms of fantastic literature. Instead, a critic adhering to the term in this way would say that a Garcia Marquez novel such as Chronicle of a Death Foretold, or Love in the Time of Cholera, is a magic realist novel.

A Career in Tourism

Currently tourism – very promising and quickly developing field of economics. Now on volumes of revenue tourism in the third place in the world after the automotive and petroleum industries. But there is a forecast that in the coming years it will take a second or even first place. Also, it should be noted that in the tourism sector employs about half of the population of our planet. Therefore, I believe that tourism Is one of the most attractive areas of activity.In our time, given all the advancements and technology, travel has become easy. And If we consider that the standard of living In our country Is growing, we can still say that tourism Is becoming more affordable for us. Personally, I was attracted by specialty tourism, because I believe that this work- combining business with pleasure. That Is, If I work In the travel agency, I will get the opportunity to more and more to develop, to learn about different parts of our planet,I will certainly go to Info-tours at the e xpense the enterprise. If, for example, I work In a hotel, It Is a constant opportunity to communicate with new people, foreigners, with their culture. This is an opportunity to practice foreign languages. Jobs tour operator is also very interesting, as it implies a vast knowledge of geography, involves creativity. Make tours very interesting, because I can go to different countries.In addition to all the benefits that I have listed, we should add that all this high-paying places. More accurate to say that everything will depend on myself. To succeed in the career of tourism, first need to have a aspiration and a great desire, you need to be in the mood for communication. Should also receive special education. One must be aware of all the news related to tourism. Attend conferences, participate in the communities to be active within the enterprise, and to invent something new.

Build And Position Your Brand With John Hall [Podcast]

Build And Position Your Brand With John Hall [Podcast] Thought leadership: You’ve no doubt heard the buzzword, but do you know what it means? More importantly, do you know why it matters when it comes to building and growing your business? Today we are going to talk to John Hall, the co-founder and CEO of Influence Co., is going to chat with us today about how thought leadership can help you scale your business and take it to the next level. How John got started with Influence Co., how the company helps other businesses, and why they developed the technology needed for content creation and distribution. What inspired John to write his book, Top of Mind: Use Content to Unleash Your Influence and Engage Those Who Matter to You. Tips on building influence for those who want to use their influence to write and publish a book, as well as the first steps to take when writing a book. How a marketer can find a great idea to pitch to an influential publication. Some tactics John has used to build influence and position himself as an authority. Ideas on measuring intangibles like brand awareness, thought leadership, and influence with both qualitative and quantitative measurements. John’s best advice for someone looking to position themselves as an authority or an influencer. Links: John Hall on LinkedIn Influence Co. Top of Mind: Use Content to Unleash Your Influence and Engage Those Who Matter to You Likeonomics Non-Obvious If you liked today’s show, please subscribe on iTunes to The Actionable Content Marketing Podcast! The podcast is also available on SoundCloud, Stitcher, and Google Play. Quotes by John: â€Å"It’s more important to build trust with specific audiences than just selling to them all the time.† â€Å"So many people get published somewhere and they’re like, â€Å"Great, I got published,† [but] if you don’t do things to leverage a content, the chances are less that you’re going to perform.† â€Å"You got to just start writing, getting content out there and being thoughtful about it.†

Peter The Great Essays - House Of Romanov, 20th Century In Russia

Peter The Great Essays - House Of Romanov, 20th Century In Russia Peter the Great Peter the Great or Peter I, czar of Russia, reigned from (1672-1725). In many ways he bettered the country of Russia, but in other ways he hurt Russia. The ways in which bettered the country outweighs the bad effects put upon Russians during his reign. Most of the ways that he improved the country stemmed from him forcing Western European culture on his people. One of the ways in which he bettered Russia was that he expanded their land. Land expansion meant that Russia became bigger that the rest of Europe and Russia now had sea and fresh water ports important for trade. He also improved education, the military, and transportation. Some of the negative aspects of Peter?s rule was that the Russians taxes increased and their standard of life had decrease. At all cost and with his perseverance Peter had made Russia a European power. Peter?s greatest accomplishment was that he educated many of the would be illiterate Russians. Russians were at the highest point of education that they had ever been. He standardized a simpler Russian alphabet and introduced Arabic numerals. He started Russian academies for higher education. For the Boyards he made the college aged people to go out of the country for five years to study at a school in a Western European school. For the first time in Russian history there were the publishing of newspapers. He also changed the calendar to agree with the current calendar, the Gregorian. Peter next best accomplishment was that he expanded the state and therefor encouraged trade. Until the middle part of his reign Russia was land locked which meant that they had to hope that the other countries would let them through their country and water to go other countries seeking trade. The only way they could trade was with neighboring countries and that was still not good. Through wars with other countries such as Sweden they acquired lands that would give them seaports. With this came the establishment of a large seaport called St. Petersburg. St. Petersburg brought along the establishment in Russia of newly invented canals, stone roads, and drainage systems. The success was due to no pay labor of the peasants and the nobles having to spend time in that city. The city became known as the window to Europe. The accomplishment that is both good and bad was the implementation of a strong standing army. The main reason for why it was good was that it gave Russia victories in wars that resulted in land gains for trading. He added the Kossacks to the military that was a great move because these men were great horsemen. Something else had grown from his army policy that benefited that peasants the nobles were also put in the army. Because of this the peasants through his military merit advancement policy could become nobles. Everyone at this time were equal in status. The reason for why it was bad was that it gave Peter absolute control over everyone. 85 to 90 percent of the revenue rose by taxes were given to the military. There were also three tax hikes to pay for his many wars and his troops. People did not realize it but their lives could have been at stake with any false actions. Peter the Great was bad in that he was very cruel to the people of Russia. He heavily taxed everyone, so the serfs had to pay taxes for themselves and their owners. In the case of St. Petersburg the serfs had build without pay and those who did not build paid taxes. Peter was so mean that he tortured his son to death and that the people of Russia were saying some bad stuff under their breath about Peter. Due to the frequent wars the people that he drafted for the army had great chances of dying in action. In wars with the Turks he had lost some of their pride. Peter the Great of Russia was a great Czar whose actions helped the country more than it hurt the country. He expanded the territory of Russia and trade with it. He also introduced Russia to Western culture. From that came education and inventions. He was also

Case Study On Motivation Example

Case Study On Motivation Example Case Study On Motivation – Coursework Example Motivation First, Middle Initial (s), Last Affiliation Motivation Motivation plays a role of fundamental significance within an organization. It is a tool that determines the prosperity of a firm. Motivation is one of the most powerful factors that influence employees to explore their maximum potential and meet the objective of a firm (Marios, 2009). In the case study, there are two key challenges that will be reviewed and outlined by this paper. This paper is obligated to elaborate the challenges and propose ultimate solution to the issues. ChallengesInability to meet the required deadline and decrease in the quality of work output are the two main challenges that are associated with lack of motivation. The challenges above transparently shows that employees lack the driving force that tends to persuade them to take action and produce maximum work output. Lack of the motivation factor can make an individual fail to meet the targeted goal. Recommendation Motivating workers through re wards is the most suitable of curbing the challenges. There are strategies that should be adapted or implemented to enhance the achievement of a desirable workplace behavior. Rewarding individuals who have depicted or exhibited an outstanding performance is among the strategies (Marios, 2009). This comprises of rewarding the staffs for the extra time at work. This will always encourage the workers to be motivated and be content with their work. Among the rewards which are always proposed includes job promotions, tokens and gifts, and vacation holidays. Before the implementation of the excellent award, the manager should know the weakness of the forms and areas that require improvement or boost. The awards should be set against such areas. This will motivate them because they will have a feeling that their hard work has been noticed. The awards that should be implemented are supposed to be implemented to ensure it is standard and constant (Marios, 2009). An example is the reward for the most hardworking, the most improved, team or the year, and the most inspiring among many others. Some of the awards should be given to the clients. This will encourage clients to keep on coming back for their services so as to win the award.ReferencesMarios, K (2009). Strategic Management. Carlisle: Routledge

Retrofitting Suburbia How to turn undefined, unstructured places into Dissertation

Retrofitting Suburbia How to turn undefined, unstructured places into legible, coherent, accessible spaces and the effects - Dissertation Example These areas have a pragmatic and emotional significance for every citizen (Lynch, 1960). Legibility can be defined as the facility with which symbols can be interpreted. Legibility is effectively the facility with which individuals comprehend the perspective of a location. In composing questionnaire surveys, Lynch delineated a format of interpreting legibility based on five components. These components are recognized as Thoroughfares, borders. Districts, Landmarks and Hubs. These were delineated as follows: Thoroughfares Thoroughfares are venues of travel which are familiar to the citizenry. These are the venues by which the individuals regularly, occasionally or possibly transport themselves. Examples of thoroughfares are: pathways, transit routes and railroad modes of transport. The consistency of the thoroughfare is reliant upon its dimensions, its inclination and the occupations which occur upon it (Lynch, 1960). Borders Borders can be defined as the limits which are formed from one part of the city to another. Borders can be characterized as coastlines, natural and man made geographical socio economic and political limitations. The consistency of the borders in a municipal environment is reliant upon the man made or geographical parameters of the limits which are assigned to a municipality (Lynch, 1960). Districts Districts are characterized by the distinction in geographical location, the architecture of which they are composed, the socio economic, geographical and political characteristics by which they are formed and the occupations which take place within them. The consistency of a district is reliant upon its population, its geographical location, the socio economic and the aspects of the citizenry which occupy it. Examples of districts are commercial areas, historical areas which are reserved for recreational purposes such as parks, commercial and cultural areas of activity within a municipality (Lynch, 1960). Landmarks Landmarks are geographical poi nts of reference which are mutually recognized by the individuals in a city as being frames of references. A landmark may be a natural characteristic of the city, a location of historical importance represented by a commemorative aspect or a construction which is outstanding in its characteristic which is outstanding in its environment. Examples of landmarks may be hills, historical monument, facilities in the municipality which are mutually recognized among the other buildings and geographical aspects of the environment (Lynch, 1960). Hubs Hubs are recognized as being the centers of activity in a municipality. There are characterized by the activities which occur within the. A municipality may be characterized as a hub if it has connections with other municipalities in the area by means of commerce, socio political activity, population density, cultural and transport characteristics of interconnection with other areas (Lynch, 1960). The Formation of Mental Maps An individualâ€℠¢s perception of their surrounding is defined as mental map. A mental map is the individual’s paradigm of their recognized surroundings. Mental maps can be researched by requesting direction to a landmark, path, edge or hub. They can also be characterized by an individual’

Why was the Hong Kong government so slow to abolish the mui tsai Research Paper

Why was the Hong Kong government so slow to abolish the mui tsai system - Research Paper Example They were sold, under the pretext that they would eventually be freed when they were older through their eventual future marriage. Such arrangements, were generally conceived as being charitable, as such young girls/ women would be better taken care of, as mui tsai, rather than if they remained in their poor family settings. The above is rooted in the traditional Chinese ideal (preference) of a male heir, as opposed to female offspring, hence the accepted alternative option of selling these unwanted girls. Such transactions often lacked binding contracts, hence such arrangements were prone to various manipulations, the most common being sale of such young women into prostitution1. While the rest of the global society was enacting the – Abolishment of slave trade – this through the Slave Trade Act and the Slavery Abolition Act, the Hong Kong government was reluctant to follow suit pegged on the fact that it treated the transfer of girls/ young women as a family affair or matter, which was rooted in traditional custom. Additionally was Hong Kong’s existent government reluctance to offend its local elites, who virtually benefited from this system, and hence were unwilling to fully implement total abolition of the same. Hong Kong, was among the many entities that served as British protectorates or colonies, and hence British law, passed through parliament, necessitated the eventual enactment of the – Female Domestic Service Bill in the year 1923. Churchill was the then Secretary of State for the British colonies and his pledge was because of parliamentary inquiries that later necessitated the timely action of the British Colonial Office2. Various charges, such as slavery, child torture, and the buying and selling of children, by several MPs (Members of Parliament), thus necessitated the aforementioned pledge by Churchill. Such uproar was because of the British society’s unfamiliarity with the aforementioned phenomenon, with the Br itish domestic sensibilities having outlawed slavery since the year 1933, in addition to having undergone various child labor reforms. At first, the Colonial Office officials put up a spirited defense of the practice, which they defended as being nothing illegal, with this Chinese traditional custom. Such officially muted apprehension, contrasted sharply with other existent opinions as exemplified by Clara Haslewood, a lead activist, whose book, Child Slavery in Hong Kong: The Mui Tsai System – explicitly characterized the phenomenon3. Further complicating the matter was Hong Kong government’s resistance towards all attempts at abolishing this trend-giving rise to two distinct groupings amongst the existent native populations. These two distinct parties were either for (supported) or against the practice, the controversy reaching its peak as a fully-fledged scandal both in Britain and in the then Hong Kong British colony. With the 1923 Female Domestic Service Bill in p lace – further sale, purchase, transfer and importation of mui tsais, was prohibited, with an additional demand for the requisite registration of all existent mui tsais, however being postponed. Unfortunately, this vital law was never observed with the seriousness that it necessitated4. However, with Britain becoming a signatory to the International Slavery Convention (1926) under the leadership of the League of Nations, this issue faced international scrutiny. It is hence from such strong international political pressure that Hong Kong’s government enacted the 1929 Female Domestic Service Ordinance. This required the registration of all existent mui tsais, prior to 31 May 1930. Henceforth, neither the sale nor registration was

Individual Personality Profile Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Individual Personality Profile - Assignment Example The study of personality is undertaken mostly by both sociologists and psychologists to give them an insight into what makes a person tick. There are two broad ways of how to approach or implement the study of personality. The first is through discovering some general principles that apply to all types of people such as self-actualization principle that governs all human beings. The second approach is to observe and understand an individual by his unique aspects. The first approach is generalized or macro view (termed as nomothetic psychology) while the second is a micro view of a person or specific and called idiographic psychology. There are also several theoretical viewpoints used to study personality such as social learning perspective, biological, humanistic, behavioral and psycho-dynamic. Various tests have been designed to determine an individuals personality using some of these theories to arrive at a coherent and complete picture of a persons psychological composition or makeup. Personal psychology is used in a variety of ways such as hiring policies for employment. This paper will describe my personality based on some tests I took and discuss its implications. Knowing your personality type can help a lot in career decision making. This is due to the fact that certain personalities are more suited to particular jobs or professions. Having a good fit between personality and job description helps towards achieving efficiency at work and increased employee satisfaction as well. This is why personality tests are important in the world of work and many firms use personality tests to determine if an applicant is suitable or not for a vacant job position. Hiring the right employees helps to improve or achieve overall organizational objectives. Training and work experience can come in later and augment all an employees strengths in performing the job functions but the

Supply Chain Assignment Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Supply Chain Assignment - Coursework Example Supply Chain Assignment Supply chains of these products would be thoroughly analyzed in order to understand relative performance of these two organizations. Operations of the two companies will be contrasted and compared to identify the degree to which such processes extend support towards customer service. Coca-Cola Company is the marketer, manufacturer and retailer of multinational beverages, having its headquarters based in Atlanta, Georgia. The flagship product of the firm is Coca-Cola. This organization was a part of beverage industry and was founded in 1886. Franchised distribution system had been adopted by the organization, and its products are distributed across the globe. PepsiCo is Beverage and Food Corporation of America, having its headquarters in New York, United States. The company deals in distribution, manufacturing and marketing of beverages, grain-based snack foods, etc. This firm has its products distributed across 200 countries. On basis of revenue margins, the company is largest bevera ge and food business. The common stages of supply chain process involved in production of Coca Cola are customers, retailers, distributors or wholesalers, manufacturers and raw material suppliers. In supply chain management process of Coca Cola, there is forward flow of materials from suppliers to manufacturer, assembly point, warehouse, retailers and finally to end customers. It can be stated the main objective of any organization is to facilitate maximum utilization of resources and enhance productivity level.

Life in the Colonial Convent. in Latin America Research Paper

Life in the Colonial Convent. in Latin America - Research Paper Example Conquering nations placed value on convents. Monastic life gained respect and power in the society. Distinction of ethnicity, honour, and gender between the nuns increased with the passage of time. Many individuals were being used as slaves and servants in the convents. Convents generated financial resources by getting money from wealthy families; this defined numerous classes of people as per their financial standings (Bethell 56). Factors like demography, spatial variations and economy caused differences in women’s lives. Spanish women were given almost all the rights and protection during the colonial period in Latin America. Education and protection for women was ensured at the convents but other races and classes suffered as there were no rights and convent for them in Latin America (Skidmore & Smith 71). Latin America was male dominated colonial world and women were not allowed to take part in any activity without the permission of male. Male member of the family was onl y allowed to take all decision in day-to-day social life. Race and class distinction was firmly enforced and people were dealt accordingly. Women used two types of veils for differentiating leaders from servants. Nuns wearing black veils were from wealthy families and brought all the precious items with them. ... Mestizo women were only employed as servants. These practises at the convents enacted social barriers in the human life in the colonies (Edwards 128). Convents were initially established only in the main cities of Latin America. Walls were built to separate the convents from the cities. That is why convent used to give a deserted look. Keeping of slaves and servants in convents was as normal as in rest of the world. there are numerous examples in Latin America and people also say that between two convents in Cuzco , more than 500 living out of which 50% were nuns (Bethell 61). Influential families lived in separate homes within the convent and kept orphan girls as servants along with other servants. Dona Juana de Maldonado constructed good house for herself. She used dozen of black maids in construction of accommodation in the convent. Juana also spoke about gender double standards in her poems (Skidmore & Smith 75). Convents in Latin America used multiple sources to generate revenue s. Nuns took oath of obedience and poverty to their superiors. Wealthy families residing in convents could not manage to give a luxurious life to their daughters because a huge amount of money was paid to church and convent. Nuns were considered â€Å"brides of Christ† so all nuns were expected to give their dowry to church. Quantity of dowry presented to church, dictated the amount of luxurious lives that nuns can live. 6000 pesos was entry fee in the convent in Lima. For a luxurious living, convent used to charge double amount (Edwards 132). Demography, spatial variations and economy caused differences in women’s lives in colonial Latin America. Islamic way of social life was fully followed by the Iberian women during the colonial age in old and the new world.

Supply Chain Assignment Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Supply Chain Assignment - Coursework Example Supply Chain Assignment Supply chains of these products would be thoroughly analyzed in order to understand relative performance of these two organizations. Operations of the two companies will be contrasted and compared to identify the degree to which such processes extend support towards customer service. Coca-Cola Company is the marketer, manufacturer and retailer of multinational beverages, having its headquarters based in Atlanta, Georgia. The flagship product of the firm is Coca-Cola. This organization was a part of beverage industry and was founded in 1886. Franchised distribution system had been adopted by the organization, and its products are distributed across the globe. PepsiCo is Beverage and Food Corporation of America, having its headquarters in New York, United States. The company deals in distribution, manufacturing and marketing of beverages, grain-based snack foods, etc. This firm has its products distributed across 200 countries. On basis of revenue margins, the company is largest bevera ge and food business. The common stages of supply chain process involved in production of Coca Cola are customers, retailers, distributors or wholesalers, manufacturers and raw material suppliers. In supply chain management process of Coca Cola, there is forward flow of materials from suppliers to manufacturer, assembly point, warehouse, retailers and finally to end customers. It can be stated the main objective of any organization is to facilitate maximum utilization of resources and enhance productivity level.

Consumer Behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Consumer Behaviour - Essay Example It is not necessarily the primary goal of the individual and can be adequate to avoid uncomfortable tension which can arise out of the absence of the primary goal. Deprivation of the primary goal generally results in the attainment of primary goal status of the substitute goal. This can be regarded as a defence mechanism for individuals in order to protect their ego. For example, an individual who cannot afford a very high priced and luxurious car may actually find contentment and satisfaction with less expensive car and consider its image as the one he clearly prefers (Schiffman, 1988, p.97). Defence mechanism is regarded as the way in which individuals cope with frustrations or a frustrating situation in order to protect their self esteem or self image. This can be explained by an example. When an individual cannot afford apparel that she craves for, she can satisfy her craving by a number of different ways. She might opt for less expensive apparel or she can also react to situatio n by showing anger and frustration towards her boss who does not provide her with the money she would like to have for buying the dress. The other alternative is that she could persuade herself to understand that that the dress does not look as good as it should be as per its price. The two cases can be regarded as aggression and rationalization respectively. These two are the defence mechanism which people adopt in order to protect their own ego from the feeling of failure when they are unable to accomplish their goals. The types of defence mechanisms that individuals undertake are numerous and far from being exhaustive. This is because of the fact that individuals generally develop their own ways of fighting frustrating situations to protect their self esteem arising from apprehensions and anxieties that result from the experience of failures. It is essential for marketers to consider these facts during constructing advertisements and selecting advertising appeals. In this markete rs can emphasize on the product in which they portray an individual resolving a specific frustrating situation by the use of the advertised product. Needs are considered one of the most crucial essence of marketing concepts. Marketers do not generally create the need in individuals but rather make consumers aware of the needs. Needs and goals constantly keep changing in response to the changing environment, physical conditions, and interactions with people around and experiences. With the attainment of a goal, consumers strive to attain a new goal and consequently develop new needs. In case they are unable to attain a particular goal they keep striving for old goals or develop substitute goals. It is crucial for marketers to identify the people’s needs while producing a product. Additionally, when they launch a particular product marketers also have the important responsibility of generating awareness among the consumers about their need for the product (Prakashan, 2006, p.7. 4). Types of motives of individuals, is an associated concept which marketers must understand along with needs. Motivation is the driving force within individuals which impels them to take a particular course of action. Many of the needs of individuals can remain dormant most of

Assignment Internal Cash Control Essay Example for Free

Assignment Internal Cash Control Essay The weaknesses in the internal control over cash disbursements are, there should be only one person in charge of writing the checks for each task, and there should be numbered checks for both people so that the funds spend can be tracked easier, the cabinets were the checks are stored should be two locked cabinets, one for each person who writes the checks. Memo: I would recommend that to have a better control over money paid and items purchased, that you start having numbered checks in two separate accounts, one account for the treasurer and one account for the purchasing agent. This method will make it easier for moth parties to avoid mistakes, and it will also be easier to verify money spent and received. P4-1A The internal control principles implemented by the Guard Dog Company are, numbered checks so that the company has a number trail to monitor cash dispersment. Each check must have approval from Jane Bell, and Dennis Kurt before a check can be issued, this is an establishment of responsibility to ensure that not just anyone ion the company can write checks. Checks must be signed by either Tom Kimball, the treasurer, or Karen Thews, the assistant treasurer. Before signing a check, the signer is expected to compare the amounts of the check with the amounts on the invoice, this is also a form of establishment of responsibility and both of these procedures are a use of documentation procedures. After signing a check, the signer stamps the invoice â€Å"paid† and inserts within the stamp, the date, check number, and amount of the check. The â€Å"paid† invoice is then sent to the accounting department for recording. By doing this it is a way of verifying company cash dispersment and documentation control. Blank checks are stored in a safe in the treasurer’s office. The combination to the safe is known by only the treasurer and assistant treasurer. By locking the checks in a safe it establishes responsibility for the checks, and uses a Physical, mechanical, and electronic controls to narrow down any check problems to one source. Each month the bank statement is reconciled with the bank balance per books by the assistant chief accountant. By doing this it establishes document control, this way any discrepancies in the amount paid can be verified. Indicate the weaknesses in internal accounting control in the handling of collections. The weaknesses in the handling of collections are the way the money is deposited, the way the checks are made out and the way the money is verified and deposited. P4-2A List the improvements in internal control procedures that you plan to make at the next meeting of the audit team for (1) the ushers, (2) the head usher, (3) the financial secretary, and (4) the finance committee. The improvements the ushers need to make is that after each offering they should individually count their own collected baskets and log there amount in an offering log book, so that there is less room for error in the next step. By handing all the baskets to the head usher without counting the money themselves, the head usher can offer any amount on his final deposit. The improvements the head usher needs to make is to make sure that each usher counts their baskets, and that the head usher counts all the baskets and checks for discrepancies to make sure that no one is pocketing any money. The head usher should also check the amount given to him/her against what is written in the offering log. Have a book to log the amount of money that is put into the safe so that it is logged in a way that can be verified by the committee, a note is not a safe method because it can be thrown out, by logging in a book it is easier to find were the discrepancies came from. The improvements the financial secretary should make is that he/she should have a list of what needs to be paid and make a log of the amounts that need paid and to make sure the receipts are logged along with whatever bills or services that needed to be paid that week. The financial secretary should also verify the amount of money in the safe against the log that is kept by the ushers. The financial committee should show a more detailed list of what expenditures are needed each month so that the financial secretary knows what is needed for payment that month. They should also be involved in verifying the churches income. To improve internal control the church should have a log for money received during offerings, they should tell the congregation to make the checks payable to the church or to the account holder that the checks are deposited into, because anyone can cash a check made out to â€Å"cash†. The church should also verify that any money not deposited from the offering was spent properly and not used for personal things. Include how a company could use the five basic principles of cash management to increase accuracy for a business. A company can increase the collection of receivables by offering incentives for quick payment from their customers. A company can delay the payment of liabilities and bills to close to the due date of the liability or bill, so that if any expenditure is needed before the due date they will not have spent the money too early. A company can keep inventory low on the merchandise that does not sell quickly, so that the company has money for the merchandise that is popular and selling fast. A company that wish to expand should wait until they have excess money in a slow season so that they can expand their business and have new locations open in time for their busy season. A company should invest money that is sitting idle into low risk companies’, the most common form of liquid investments is interest-paying U. S. government securities.

Corporate Social Responsibility Disclosure and Performance

Corporate Social Responsibility Disclosure and Performance 1. FOCUS OF THE STUDY 1.1 Introduction Major corporate ethical disasters impacting the environment, human resources, and the community have heightened the demand for public firms to voluntarily disclose their CSR activities for stakeholders. As a result, CSR has become more than an important issue in the business world (Waller Lanis 2009). In addition, CSR disclosure is an extension of the financial disclosure system, which reflects the wider anticipation of society concerning the role of the business community in the economy. Furthermore, with the rapid collapse of cross-border economic barriers and the globalization of business, progressively the role of CSR is being debated in an international arena (van der Laan Smith, Adhikari Tondkar 2005). The WBSCD[2] (2000) (as cited in (May Khare 2008, p. 240)) defined CSR as: Also, Mathews (1993, p. 64) has defined CSR disclosure as: According to these definitions, CSR activities and disclosure play a relevant role in OP[3]. In addition, CSR includes many activities such as community responsibilities, environmental responsibilities, employee responsibilities, investor responsibilities, customer responsibilities, and supplier responsibilities. Many studies have emerged concerning the link between CSR and OP (Margolis Walsh 2003; McWilliams, Siegel Wright 2006). In the business context, Rettab, Brik Mellahi (2009) notice that to date, there has not been a research focus on the examination of the strategic value of CSR in developing economies, despite the consensus between scholars and researchers about the impact of CSR activities disclosure creating more pressure on firms from several stakeholders to enhance their OP. Crane et al (2005) notices that business systems differ from country to country. Therefore, this study will attempt to understand the institutional and managerial characteristics of different countries economies. In particular the institutional environment in the emerging economy of Libya has experienced dynamic changes over a short period of time (Mateos 2005). Libya is considered one of the most important producers of high quality and low sulphur oil and gas, and is strategically well placed to take advantage of the Mediterranean and European market. In addition, it is the members of the Organisation for Petroleum (World Markets Research Centre, 2002; Terterov, 2002) (as cited in (Abdulhamid et al. 2005)). Therefore, it possesses a significant world economic standing and has a unique economic and political system. During the last two decades, it was punished by the Security Council and was excluded from international investment with development almost totally frozen. However, from the year 2000 Libya has opened its commercial office in Libyan capital (Tripoli). Knipe and Venditti (2005, p.2) explain ( as cited in (Abdulhamid et al. 2005, p. 2) that. The main influential factor that leads to and regulates the attitude and behaviour of Arab societies, including Libya, is the Islamic religion. This is, according to Ali (1996, p. 6) due to the fact that In 1977, the political system has enabled the Libyan people to make decisions directly, and municipal peoples congresses and basic peoples congresses established across the country. These congresses have their own budgets with legislative and executive powers, and elect a secretariat to represent their decisions at the national general peoples congress. they also approve the budget, laws and policies (Pratten Mashat 2009). Figure (1) shows the structure of the peoples congresses and peoples committee. Libya has a special system which is based on what is called the third Universal Theory inside the Green Book. This system tackles the economic problems such as wages for production. Furthermore, these developments in Libya have led to unequal welfare distribution and unlimited market opportunities that have formed high incentives for opportunistic behaviour. Moreover, Libya established a public organisation for the environment in 2000. Also, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) have characterised Libya as one of the developing countries which is attempting to rapidly move towards economic growth (UNDP 2007). The business media often show unscrupulous firms resorting to socially irresponsible practices to gain high profits at the expense of employee welfare, customer safety, and the environment. Although the government has made some laws to regulate firms conduct, many companies monitor and enforce such regulations themselves (Mellahi 2007). In spite of the will of political actors in most emerging economies expectancy fast economic growth such as China, India, and the UAE to disclose CSR activities on pollution, customer protection, and labour practices, the CSR remains at a low level of disclosure in these countries compared with western developed countries (Al-Khater Naser 2003; Rettab, Brik Mellahi 2009). Therefore, Libya has the same condition, as it is developing and growing economically. However, the level of CSR disclosure has increased since 2000 in Libya compared to previous years (Pratten Mashat 2009) due to pressures from stakeholders which may influence OP for Libyan compa nies. Thus this study will attempt to examine the relationship between CSR disclosure and OP in terms of FP[4], EC[5], and CR[6]. 1.2 Statement of the problem Over the years, many studies have emerged concerning the relationship between CSR initiatives and OP (Margolis Walsh 2003; McWilliams, Siegel Wright 2006). Therefore, this study will examine the interrelations between corporate social responsibility disclosure and organizational performance in the Libyan context. This research defines CSR value as follows: to what extent firms are estimating their CSR activities, identifying important CSR activities for organizations in the Libyan context, and how they are managing these issues. Research on CSR disclosure and OP is limited in developing countries especially in the Libyan context, in spite of concerns from the stakeholders about the impact of CSR activities on OP. This research will investigate CSR and disclosure practices in Libya from different sectors (manufacturing sector; banks and insurance sector; services sector; and mining sector) and whether there is any difference between the industry sectors. In addition, this study inve stigates the question of how CSR activities, disclosure affects OP. 1.3 Research objective The research project has four major objectives. First, it will evaluate the level of social disclosure relating to annual reporting within Libya. Second, the project will explore whether CSR disclosure affects OP in terms of FP, EC, and CR. Third, it will investigate CSR disclosure practices and OP under the stakeholder theory and value theory in the Libyan context. Finally, this research project seeks to assist firms in understanding the nature of the relationship between CSR disclosure and OP. The significance of understanding this relationship stems from one source: firms have incentives to utilise their CSR activities and ensure disclosure, to enhance their performance. The research proposal is organised as follows the next sections provide a review the relevant literature and framework; research design (research question and conceptual framework) of the proposed research; research methodology (approach; sample and data collection; instrument and data analysis); the last section shows study motivation. 1.4 Scope of the study This study focuses mainly on CSR disclosure (CSRD) that impacts on OP in terms of FP, EC, and CR. Identifying the level of CSR disclosure is employed by companies for stakeholders frames the boundary of this study. In addition, it will focus on 77 of companies in the Libyan context (manufacturing companies; banks and insurance companies; and service companies; mining companies). To support the purpose of this study, several items of relevant literature have been reviewed to identify some gaps to be addressed in this research. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESEARCH FRAMEWORK 2.1 Theoretical perspectives 2.1.1 Stakeholder theory Stakeholder theory involves the identification of a companys stakeholders and explains the ethical and social obligations of management to consider the interests of these stakeholders (Freeman 1984). This theory claims that a firm should provide their stakeholders with all the information necessary about their firms performance in spite of different interests. Therefore, stakeholder theory considers that â€Å"the success of an organization depends on the extent to which the organization is capable of managing its relationship with key groups, such as financial and stakeholders, but also customers, employees, and even communities or societies.† (van Beurden Gà ¶ssling 2008, p. 408). In addition, Freeman (1984) explains that stakeholder theory offers a pragmatic approach to strategy that motivates organisations to be cognizant of stakeholders to achieve appropriate performance. As Frederick notes (as cited in Laplume, Sonpar Litz 2008, p. 1153) â€Å" the stakeholder idea f its into the mentality of strategically-minded corporate managers; in its latest phases, some companies are now justifying broader social policies and actions, not for normative reasons but for strategic purposes†. Ullmann (1985) suggested (as cited in Sà ¡nchez Sotorrà ­o 2007) that stakeholder theory associates social disclosure with financial and social performance by combining three dimensions such as stakeholder power, the strategic position of the company concerning social activities, and the past and present financial efficiency of the organisation, to develop a theoretical framework. Sà ¡nchez and Sotorrà ­o (2007) reveal that stakeholder powerhelps the identification of stakeholders interests which need to be considered by companies; the strategic position of the company with regards to social activitiesdescribes companies concerns about environmental and social issues emanating from stakeholders demands; and the past and present financial efficiency of the organ isationshould be concerned with social issues as well. In addition, Donaldson and Preston (1995) indicated that originally, stakeholder theory emphasized shareholders interests, and they made a case for the theorys normative base, where the moral, ethical and legal claims of all stakeholders of organizations were advocated. In addition, the concepts of CSR and stakeholder theory are fundamental to the study of business and society (Marom 2006). Moreover, stakeholder theory suggests that the stakeholders establish the social performance of their firms by means of a complex evaluation related to their expectations, which is represented by its reputation (Neville, Bell Menguc 2005). Furthermore, the instrumental aspect of stakeholder theory focuses on the cause-effect relationships between corporate performance and stakeholder management practices (Marom 2006). Thus, this theory focuses on the importance of a correlative relationship between a firms disclosure and key groups. This the ory attempts to answer some questions about this relationship, such as: how far a company has performed its roles in accordance with the stakeholders needs. Customers, for instance, need to know whether the product sold by the company does not use wood from illegal logging or whether it uses production technology that causes pollution. In addition, the theories deal with how organizations communicate with those stakeholders is important. Furthermore, is their firms performance matching the stakeholders demands? How do stakeholders evaluate the performance of these organizations? Gray, Kouhy and Lavers and ODonovan (2002) point out (as cited in Deegan 2009) that stakeholder theory is overlapping with small differences in explaining the firms behaviour toward the society. Moreover, stakeholder theory posits that organizations are performing in order to fulfilling the expectations of particular stakeholders who are able to impact on their performance. Previous studies (e.g. Buchholz R osenthal 2004; Cormier, Gordon Magnan 2004; Schwarzkopf 2006) show that stakeholder theory is used to explain improvements in business organisational performance while providing disclosures to create better relationships between companies and their stakeholders. Although there are many studies that found the relationship between CSR disclosure and OP in terms of FP, EC, and CR to be a positive relationship (Aguilera et al. 2007; Rettab, Brik Mellahi 2009; Saleh, Zulkifli Muhamad 2008; Simpson Kohers 2002; Waddock Graves 1997), there are studies which found a negative and mixed relationship (Griffin Mahon 1997; Wright Ferris 1997). Thus, this theory has been supported by some studies (e.g. Neville, Bell Menguc 2005; Orlitzky, Schmidt Rynes 2003; Peloza Papania 2008; Sà ¡nchez Sotorrà ­o 2007; van Beurden Gà ¶ssling 2008). 2.1.2 Value theory Value theory claims that although stakeholders are different in terms of their value priorities, the interest of a stakeholders value system is universal. This means that the stakeholders differ only in terms of the relative importance that they place on these universally important value types (Siltaoja 2006). Therefore, large firms have as many reputations as there are distinctive groups that take an interest in them (Bromley 2002). In addition, MacMillan et al (2005) points out that stakeholders (employees, shareholders, customers, community, investors, supplies) prefer coherence with a common concern for a reputation entity. Hence, in order to maintain these firms reputations, they should improve the relationship with their stakeholders via CSR disclosure. Many studies set out the importance of stakeholder perceptions in order to understand the nature of a firms reputation (Dowling 2004). In addition, Siltaoja (2006, p. 95) suggests that â€Å"value [is an] over arching matter, meaning a company with good reputation has values, which suit to individuals own values†. Value theory was employed to explore the nature of CSR and corporate reputation using qualitative (Siltaoja 2006). Schwartzs study (1999) shows ten motivationally distinct types of values such as power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, benevolence, and security that enable scholars to use them in culture world wide. These motivations are included within CSR actions that are disclosed in annual reports of firms. Furthermore, there are other studies that explain the eight most common survey instruments to use in order to create values (measures) through corporate reputation such as Fombrun, Gardberg and Sever (2000). One of the most used measures (values) is the Rep utation QuotientSM that consists of six measures (values). Thus, this study will use CSR disclosure that is variously associated with reputation via the Reputation QuotientSM to determine the relationships between CSR disclosure and CR through value theory. 2.2 Review of the related literature 2.2.1 CSR disclosure and organisational performance Researchers efforts have been made to comprehend the impact of CSR activities on OP (Husted Allen 2000; Husted de Jesus Salazar 2006; Marom 2006; McWilliams Siegel 2001; Moneva, Rivera-Lirio Mu oz-Torres 2007; Orlitzky, Schmidt Rynes 2003; Wright Ferris 1997). The above studies found that there is a relationship between CSR activities, disclosure and OP but which indicates positive, negative, mixed, and non-significant results. On the one hand, some studies found that there is a positive relationship between CSR activities and OP (DeMaCarty 2009; Marom 2006; May Khare 2008; Peloza 2009; Ruf et al. 2001; Saleh, Zulkifli Muhamad 2008; Simpson Kohers 2002; van Beurden Gà ¶ssling 2008; Waddock Graves 1997). Furthermore, Rettab, Brik Mellahi (2009) revealed that there is a positive relationship between CSR activities and OP in developing countries (UAE firms) in Dubai. On the other hand, some studies have reported a negative relationship Vance (1975) and Mackinlay (1997) (as cited in Park Lee 2009) and Wright and Ferris (1997) or no significant relationship (Aupperle et al, 1985; Davidson and Worrell, 1990; Preston, 1978; Spicer, 1980) (as cited in Park Lee 2009); and McWilliams and Siegel (2000) between CSR and OP. However, these findings cannot be generalised from western developed economies to developing countries without further research because of different business systems. In Libya, there is no research about the impact of CSR disclosure on OP. Figure (2) shows the relationship between CSR, disclosure and the factors of estimating OP. 2.2.2 CSR disclosure and financial performance (FP) Financial performance (FP) is considered one of the most important indicators of the strategic value of CSR (Orlitzky, Schmidt Rynes 2003). Researchers started the empirical study of CSR and FP over three decades ago in western countries. There are two types of empirical studies of the relationship between CSR and FP. The first set uses the event study methodology to measure short-term financial impact when companies engage in socially responsible or irresponsible acts (e.g. Hannon Milkovich 1996; Margolis Walsh 2003; McWilliams Siegel 2000; Orlitzky, Schmidt Rynes 2003; Saleh, Zulkifli Muhamad 2008; Wright Ferris 1997). The relationship between CSR and FP was mixed in the results of these studies. For instance, McWilliams Siegel (2000) revealed no relationship, Wright Ferris (1997) found that the relationship between CSR and FP was negative and Saleh, Zulkifli Muhamad (2008) that it was a positive relationship. In addition, Margolis and Walsh (2003) found that 4% of the 16 0 studies examined reported a negative relationship between CSR and FP, 55% a positive relationship, for 22% there was no relationship, and 18% reported a mixed relationship. Furthermore, Orlitzky, Schmidt and Rynes (2003) achieved another meta-analysis and revealed similar results. While other studies are not similarly stable concerning the relationship between CSR and short-term financial return (McWilliams Siegel 2001). The examination of the nature of the relationship between measures for long-term financial performance and measures of CSR is the second set that is used from accounting and financial measures of profitability (e.g. Aguilera et al. 2007; Mahoney Roberts 2007; McGuire, Sundgren Schneeweis 1988; McWilliams Siegel 2000; Simpson Kohers 2002; Waddock Graves 1997). They also gained mixed results in these studies. Waddock Graves (1997) and Simpson Kohers (2002) found a significant positive relationship between CSR and profitability. While McGuire, Sundgren Schneeweis (1988) revealed that subsequent performance was less closely related to CSR than prior performance. Aguilera et al (2007) discuss the relationship between CSR and FP. They found that there is strong evidence for a positive and significant association between them. In addition, McWilliams and Siegel (2000) examined the relationship between two with a regression model that measures financial performance as the dependent v ariable while social performance as the independent variable during the period 1991-1996 for 524 large companies. They concluded that there was no link between CSR and FP if the regression model was properly specified. Moreover, Simpson Kohers (2002) tested the relationship between CSR and FP in the banking industry. The community Reinvestment Act (CRA) was used as a social performance measure. They found that there is a positive relationship between CSR and FP. Griffin Mahon (1997) revealed that the relationship between CSR and FP was mixed between a positive and negative relationship. However, most of the findings found a positive relationship. Furthermore, Moore Robson (2002) analysed the link between CSR and FP of eight firms. They used the derivation of a 16-measure social performance index and a 4-measure financial performance index. They depended on statistically significant results. They found a positive relationship between CSR and FP in spite of small numbers of firms. Mahoney Roberts (2007) also examined the relationship between CSR and FP in a large sample of public companies during four years of panel data in Canada. This study yielded no significant relationship between them. Yet, they revealed a significant relationship between some CSR activities such as environmental and international activities and FP. Finally, Rettab, Brik Mellahi (2009) in the UAE market as an emerging economy conducted the latest study of CSR and FP. They tested the relationship in 280 industries (manufacturing, trading and repairing services, hotels and restaurants, real estate, rental, and business services, education, banking and financial services, mining and quarrying, and others). Although there are some challenges that have contributed to ineffective engagement with stakeholders and the lack of communication of CSR activities, they found a strong positive relationship between CSR and FP. All of the studies above were done in western countries and the US except the Rettab, Brik, and Mellahi study. Rettab, Brik Mellahi (2009) examined the relationship between CSR and FP by questionnaire, while this study will examine the relationship between CSR disclosure through annual reports and FP. This indicates that there is limited research that has investigated CSR disclosure and FP in developing countries. In addition, no known study has examined the relationship between CSR disclosure and FP in Libya. Therefore, this study will attempt to contribute in this area and may facilitate more intensive research on CSR disclosure and FP links outside of western countries and US markets in the future, especially in Libya as a developing and emerging country. Based on the above, this studys hypothesis is that: h3: There is a relationship between CSR disclosure and financial performance (FP) in Libya. 2.2.3 CSR disclosure and employee commitment (EC) Employees are considered one of the most important factors in a firm; they affect an organisation in fundamental ways. Therefore, (Collier, Esteban Street 2007, p. 22). In recent years, employee commitment has been one of the most studied indicators of the strategic value of CSR. Jaworski and Kohli (1993, p 60) (as cited in (Rettab, Brik Mellahi 2009)) employee commitment is defined as: Carroll (1979) suggests that CSR and community contributions reflect the way in which a firm interacts with the physical environment and its ethical stance towards consumers and other external stakeholders. External CSR relates to internal and external information sources including the media and personal experiences within the company which may be expected to base the opinion of their employees about these activities. Employees and managers have a greater stake in the success of the corporation than investor, owners, because their jobs and economic livelihood are at stake (Post 2003). Branco and Rodrigues (2006) suggest that CSR disclosure leads to important results in the creation or deletion of other fundamentally intangible resources, and may help build a positive image with employees and managers. Maignan and Ferrell (2001), Maignan and Ferrell (2004), Backhaus, Stone and Heiner (2002), Brammer, Millington and Rayton (2007), and Peterson (2004) expected that there is a positive r elationship between CSR and EC. Furthermore, Albinger and Freeman (2000), Backhaus, Stone and Heiner (2002), Greening and Turban (2000), Maignan, Ferrell and Hult (1999), and Peterson (2004) revealed that there actually is relationship between CSR and EC. At the same time, the relationship between procedural justice and affective commitment may be expected to be positive because employees may be expected to identify with ethical organizations (Brammer Millington 2005). The existing literature provides compelling empirical support for these arguments; a strong relationship has been found between the ethical climate of organizations and job satisfaction (Koh Boo 2001; Viswesvaran, Deshpande Joseph 1998) and studies about the relationship between organizational commitment and procedural justice suggest that they are positively and significantly related (Albinger Freeman 2000; Backhaus, Stone Heiner 2002; Cohen-Charash Spector 2001; Greening Turban 2000; Meyer et al. 2002; Peters on 2004; Turban Greening 1997). Overall past studies illustrate that a firms social responsibility deal with matter to its employee and expect to have a positive impact on EC (Albinger Freeman 2000; Backhaus, Stone Heiner 2002; Cohen-Charash Spector 2001; Greening Turban 2000; Meyer et al. 2002; Peterson 2004; Turban Greening 1997). These studies also illustrated that a firms social responsibility deals with matters that relate to its employees and can be expected to have a positive impact on employees commitment. In addition, Maignan et al (1999) expected that firms that disclose CSR activities might enjoy enhanced levels of EC for two reasons: they are devoted to ensuring the quality of the workplace experience, and they inform their stakeholders about social issues such as the welfare of the community or the protection of the environment. Rupp et al (2006) noticed that employees perceptions of their firms CSR activities lead their perceptions of the firm. In addition, firms that disclose CSR activities work to ensure their employees protection through fair and socially responsible practices (Rupp et al. 2006). Thus, it can be seen that firms that engage in CSR activities should result in a positive relationship in relation to their EC because they might earn employees commitment compared with firms that do not engage in appropriate CSR activities (Aguilera et al. 2007). In addition, a positive relationship between CSR and FP is more likely to lead a positive relationship between CSR and EC (Rettab, Brik Mellahi 2009). Rettab, Brik and Mellahi (2009) found that there is a positive relationship between CSR and EC in the UAE market. One the other hand, Turker (2009) found that there is no link between CSR to government and the commitment level of employee by using social identity theory. Most of the studies above indicated that there is a positive relationship between CSR and EC, whereas few studies found a negative, insignificant and fixed relationship between them. In addition, there is limited research that has investigated CSR disclosure and EC in developing countries. Furthermore, no known study has examined the relationship between CSR disclosure and EC in Libya. Therefore, the proposed research hypothesis is that: h3: There is a relationship between CSR disclosure and employee commitment (EC) in Libya. 2.2.4 CSR disclosure and corporate reputation (CR) There is significant research which provides evidence to define corporate reputation (CR) as according to Siltaoja (2006, p. 91): CR also is (Neville, Bell Menguc 2005, p. 337). Emerging CSR lead to enhanced corporate reputation whereas non-emerging CSR leads to destroyed CR for a firm. According to McWilliams and Siegel (2001, p. 120) CSR. Similarly, (Battacharya Sen, 2003 as cited in Rettab, Brik Mellahi 2009, p. 377) that shows CSR. Additionally, some companies may employ social responsibility disclosure as one of the informational signals upon which stakeholders base their assessments of CR under conditions of incomplete information (Branco Rodrigues 2006). Also, Branco and Rodrigues (2006) explain that enhancing the effects of CSR in CR is a particularly important aspect of CSR disclosure. In addition, Hooghiemstra (2000) argues that one of the most important communication instruments that is used by firms to enhance, create, and protect their images or reputations is CSR disclosure. Moreover, it is not easy to create a positive reputation without making the associated disclosures for firms investing i n social responsibility activities to realise the value of such reputation (Hasseldine, Salama Toms 2005; Toms 2002). Furthermore, Toms (2002) explains that disclosure in annual reports, disclosure of environmental policies and their implementation were found to contribute explicitly to creating a positive CR. Besides that, Toms (2002), and Hasseldine, Salama and Toms (2005) found that the qualitative nature of environmental disclosure is more important than the quantitative nature of environmental disclosure, and has a strong effect on the creation, enhancement, and protection of CR. Thus, the relationship between CSR disclosure and CR should be clear and positive. However, the relationship between CSR and CR in developing countries as well as emerging economies is not explicit. Although the link between CSR and CR is not straightforward in emerging economies, the link between CSR and EC is observed because employees are able to observe their firms CSR activities, and thus the impact of CSR on corporate reputation can be measured (Rettab, Brik Mellahi 2009). It can be observed in the national media or in the annual report. Communicating effectively a with wide range of stakeholders enables firms to demonstrate their ability to enhance their CR. Therefore, firms operate in accordance with social and ethical criteria; they are able to create a positive reputation, but failing to do so can be a source of risk to their reputation (Branco Rodrigues 2006). The growing attention to reputation has helped to increase a number of different construct measures (Helm 2005). Fombrun (1998) engages six criteria that appear to dominate the construction of reputation in the annual reports: community involvement, employee treatment, product quality, financial performance, environmental performance and organizational issues. Most of these criteria represent some CSR activities. Lewis (2001) lists similar criteria but with an emphasis on responsibility: product quality, customer service, treatment of staff, financial performance, quality of management, environmental responsibility and social responsibility. Schultz, Mouritsen and Gabrielsen (2001) showed the reputation criteria as being based on environmental responsibility, price, human resources, internationalization, financial strength and importance to society. Therefore, all of these criteria affect corporate reputation. Peterson (2004) noted that recent corporate experience in the oil and phar maceuticals industries has emphasized negative consequences for CR which is more likely to flow from inappropriate behaviour towards the environment or consumers. At the same time, Brammer and Millington (2005) have found positive relationships between CR and CSR activities and Hess, Rogovsky and Dunfee (2002) have shown a similar relationship between corporate involvement in social causes and reputation. Also, Clarke and Gibson-Sweet (1999) note that the importance of the use of corporate disclosure is considered an effective factor in the management of reputation and legitimacy. Finally, Rettab, Brik and Mellahi (2009) found that there is a positive relationship between CSR and CR in the UAE market. Most of the studies above were done in western countries and the US except Rettab, Brik, and Mellahis (2009) study. This indicates that there is limited research that has investigated CSR, disclosure and CR in developing countries. In addition, no known study has examined the relationship between CSR, disclosure and CR in Libya. Regarding the conflict about the expected direction of this relationship, this research project hypothesises that: H3: There is a relationship between CSR disclosure and corporate reputation (CR) in Libya. 2.3 Gaps in the literature and the contribution After reviewing the literature, this study identified the following gaps: firstly, all studies evaluating CSR disclosure in Libya have not examined the link between CSR disclosure and OP. In addition, the amount of research is limited that has investigated the impact of CSR disclosure practices on OP either in Australia or internationally especially the relationship bet Corporate Social Responsibility Disclosure and Performance Corporate Social Responsibility Disclosure and Performance 1. FOCUS OF THE STUDY 1.1 Introduction Major corporate ethical disasters impacting the environment, human resources, and the community have heightened the demand for public firms to voluntarily disclose their CSR activities for stakeholders. As a result, CSR has become more than an important issue in the business world (Waller Lanis 2009). In addition, CSR disclosure is an extension of the financial disclosure system, which reflects the wider anticipation of society concerning the role of the business community in the economy. Furthermore, with the rapid collapse of cross-border economic barriers and the globalization of business, progressively the role of CSR is being debated in an international arena (van der Laan Smith, Adhikari Tondkar 2005). The WBSCD[2] (2000) (as cited in (May Khare 2008, p. 240)) defined CSR as: Also, Mathews (1993, p. 64) has defined CSR disclosure as: According to these definitions, CSR activities and disclosure play a relevant role in OP[3]. In addition, CSR includes many activities such as community responsibilities, environmental responsibilities, employee responsibilities, investor responsibilities, customer responsibilities, and supplier responsibilities. Many studies have emerged concerning the link between CSR and OP (Margolis Walsh 2003; McWilliams, Siegel Wright 2006). In the business context, Rettab, Brik Mellahi (2009) notice that to date, there has not been a research focus on the examination of the strategic value of CSR in developing economies, despite the consensus between scholars and researchers about the impact of CSR activities disclosure creating more pressure on firms from several stakeholders to enhance their OP. Crane et al (2005) notices that business systems differ from country to country. Therefore, this study will attempt to understand the institutional and managerial characteristics of different countries economies. In particular the institutional environment in the emerging economy of Libya has experienced dynamic changes over a short period of time (Mateos 2005). Libya is considered one of the most important producers of high quality and low sulphur oil and gas, and is strategically well placed to take advantage of the Mediterranean and European market. In addition, it is the members of the Organisation for Petroleum (World Markets Research Centre, 2002; Terterov, 2002) (as cited in (Abdulhamid et al. 2005)). Therefore, it possesses a significant world economic standing and has a unique economic and political system. During the last two decades, it was punished by the Security Council and was excluded from international investment with development almost totally frozen. However, from the year 2000 Libya has opened its commercial office in Libyan capital (Tripoli). Knipe and Venditti (2005, p.2) explain ( as cited in (Abdulhamid et al. 2005, p. 2) that. The main influential factor that leads to and regulates the attitude and behaviour of Arab societies, including Libya, is the Islamic religion. This is, according to Ali (1996, p. 6) due to the fact that In 1977, the political system has enabled the Libyan people to make decisions directly, and municipal peoples congresses and basic peoples congresses established across the country. These congresses have their own budgets with legislative and executive powers, and elect a secretariat to represent their decisions at the national general peoples congress. they also approve the budget, laws and policies (Pratten Mashat 2009). Figure (1) shows the structure of the peoples congresses and peoples committee. Libya has a special system which is based on what is called the third Universal Theory inside the Green Book. This system tackles the economic problems such as wages for production. Furthermore, these developments in Libya have led to unequal welfare distribution and unlimited market opportunities that have formed high incentives for opportunistic behaviour. Moreover, Libya established a public organisation for the environment in 2000. Also, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) have characterised Libya as one of the developing countries which is attempting to rapidly move towards economic growth (UNDP 2007). The business media often show unscrupulous firms resorting to socially irresponsible practices to gain high profits at the expense of employee welfare, customer safety, and the environment. Although the government has made some laws to regulate firms conduct, many companies monitor and enforce such regulations themselves (Mellahi 2007). In spite of the will of political actors in most emerging economies expectancy fast economic growth such as China, India, and the UAE to disclose CSR activities on pollution, customer protection, and labour practices, the CSR remains at a low level of disclosure in these countries compared with western developed countries (Al-Khater Naser 2003; Rettab, Brik Mellahi 2009). Therefore, Libya has the same condition, as it is developing and growing economically. However, the level of CSR disclosure has increased since 2000 in Libya compared to previous years (Pratten Mashat 2009) due to pressures from stakeholders which may influence OP for Libyan compa nies. Thus this study will attempt to examine the relationship between CSR disclosure and OP in terms of FP[4], EC[5], and CR[6]. 1.2 Statement of the problem Over the years, many studies have emerged concerning the relationship between CSR initiatives and OP (Margolis Walsh 2003; McWilliams, Siegel Wright 2006). Therefore, this study will examine the interrelations between corporate social responsibility disclosure and organizational performance in the Libyan context. This research defines CSR value as follows: to what extent firms are estimating their CSR activities, identifying important CSR activities for organizations in the Libyan context, and how they are managing these issues. Research on CSR disclosure and OP is limited in developing countries especially in the Libyan context, in spite of concerns from the stakeholders about the impact of CSR activities on OP. This research will investigate CSR and disclosure practices in Libya from different sectors (manufacturing sector; banks and insurance sector; services sector; and mining sector) and whether there is any difference between the industry sectors. In addition, this study inve stigates the question of how CSR activities, disclosure affects OP. 1.3 Research objective The research project has four major objectives. First, it will evaluate the level of social disclosure relating to annual reporting within Libya. Second, the project will explore whether CSR disclosure affects OP in terms of FP, EC, and CR. Third, it will investigate CSR disclosure practices and OP under the stakeholder theory and value theory in the Libyan context. Finally, this research project seeks to assist firms in understanding the nature of the relationship between CSR disclosure and OP. The significance of understanding this relationship stems from one source: firms have incentives to utilise their CSR activities and ensure disclosure, to enhance their performance. The research proposal is organised as follows the next sections provide a review the relevant literature and framework; research design (research question and conceptual framework) of the proposed research; research methodology (approach; sample and data collection; instrument and data analysis); the last section shows study motivation. 1.4 Scope of the study This study focuses mainly on CSR disclosure (CSRD) that impacts on OP in terms of FP, EC, and CR. Identifying the level of CSR disclosure is employed by companies for stakeholders frames the boundary of this study. In addition, it will focus on 77 of companies in the Libyan context (manufacturing companies; banks and insurance companies; and service companies; mining companies). To support the purpose of this study, several items of relevant literature have been reviewed to identify some gaps to be addressed in this research. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESEARCH FRAMEWORK 2.1 Theoretical perspectives 2.1.1 Stakeholder theory Stakeholder theory involves the identification of a companys stakeholders and explains the ethical and social obligations of management to consider the interests of these stakeholders (Freeman 1984). This theory claims that a firm should provide their stakeholders with all the information necessary about their firms performance in spite of different interests. Therefore, stakeholder theory considers that â€Å"the success of an organization depends on the extent to which the organization is capable of managing its relationship with key groups, such as financial and stakeholders, but also customers, employees, and even communities or societies.† (van Beurden Gà ¶ssling 2008, p. 408). In addition, Freeman (1984) explains that stakeholder theory offers a pragmatic approach to strategy that motivates organisations to be cognizant of stakeholders to achieve appropriate performance. As Frederick notes (as cited in Laplume, Sonpar Litz 2008, p. 1153) â€Å" the stakeholder idea f its into the mentality of strategically-minded corporate managers; in its latest phases, some companies are now justifying broader social policies and actions, not for normative reasons but for strategic purposes†. Ullmann (1985) suggested (as cited in Sà ¡nchez Sotorrà ­o 2007) that stakeholder theory associates social disclosure with financial and social performance by combining three dimensions such as stakeholder power, the strategic position of the company concerning social activities, and the past and present financial efficiency of the organisation, to develop a theoretical framework. Sà ¡nchez and Sotorrà ­o (2007) reveal that stakeholder powerhelps the identification of stakeholders interests which need to be considered by companies; the strategic position of the company with regards to social activitiesdescribes companies concerns about environmental and social issues emanating from stakeholders demands; and the past and present financial efficiency of the organ isationshould be concerned with social issues as well. In addition, Donaldson and Preston (1995) indicated that originally, stakeholder theory emphasized shareholders interests, and they made a case for the theorys normative base, where the moral, ethical and legal claims of all stakeholders of organizations were advocated. In addition, the concepts of CSR and stakeholder theory are fundamental to the study of business and society (Marom 2006). Moreover, stakeholder theory suggests that the stakeholders establish the social performance of their firms by means of a complex evaluation related to their expectations, which is represented by its reputation (Neville, Bell Menguc 2005). Furthermore, the instrumental aspect of stakeholder theory focuses on the cause-effect relationships between corporate performance and stakeholder management practices (Marom 2006). Thus, this theory focuses on the importance of a correlative relationship between a firms disclosure and key groups. This the ory attempts to answer some questions about this relationship, such as: how far a company has performed its roles in accordance with the stakeholders needs. Customers, for instance, need to know whether the product sold by the company does not use wood from illegal logging or whether it uses production technology that causes pollution. In addition, the theories deal with how organizations communicate with those stakeholders is important. Furthermore, is their firms performance matching the stakeholders demands? How do stakeholders evaluate the performance of these organizations? Gray, Kouhy and Lavers and ODonovan (2002) point out (as cited in Deegan 2009) that stakeholder theory is overlapping with small differences in explaining the firms behaviour toward the society. Moreover, stakeholder theory posits that organizations are performing in order to fulfilling the expectations of particular stakeholders who are able to impact on their performance. Previous studies (e.g. Buchholz R osenthal 2004; Cormier, Gordon Magnan 2004; Schwarzkopf 2006) show that stakeholder theory is used to explain improvements in business organisational performance while providing disclosures to create better relationships between companies and their stakeholders. Although there are many studies that found the relationship between CSR disclosure and OP in terms of FP, EC, and CR to be a positive relationship (Aguilera et al. 2007; Rettab, Brik Mellahi 2009; Saleh, Zulkifli Muhamad 2008; Simpson Kohers 2002; Waddock Graves 1997), there are studies which found a negative and mixed relationship (Griffin Mahon 1997; Wright Ferris 1997). Thus, this theory has been supported by some studies (e.g. Neville, Bell Menguc 2005; Orlitzky, Schmidt Rynes 2003; Peloza Papania 2008; Sà ¡nchez Sotorrà ­o 2007; van Beurden Gà ¶ssling 2008). 2.1.2 Value theory Value theory claims that although stakeholders are different in terms of their value priorities, the interest of a stakeholders value system is universal. This means that the stakeholders differ only in terms of the relative importance that they place on these universally important value types (Siltaoja 2006). Therefore, large firms have as many reputations as there are distinctive groups that take an interest in them (Bromley 2002). In addition, MacMillan et al (2005) points out that stakeholders (employees, shareholders, customers, community, investors, supplies) prefer coherence with a common concern for a reputation entity. Hence, in order to maintain these firms reputations, they should improve the relationship with their stakeholders via CSR disclosure. Many studies set out the importance of stakeholder perceptions in order to understand the nature of a firms reputation (Dowling 2004). In addition, Siltaoja (2006, p. 95) suggests that â€Å"value [is an] over arching matter, meaning a company with good reputation has values, which suit to individuals own values†. Value theory was employed to explore the nature of CSR and corporate reputation using qualitative (Siltaoja 2006). Schwartzs study (1999) shows ten motivationally distinct types of values such as power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, benevolence, and security that enable scholars to use them in culture world wide. These motivations are included within CSR actions that are disclosed in annual reports of firms. Furthermore, there are other studies that explain the eight most common survey instruments to use in order to create values (measures) through corporate reputation such as Fombrun, Gardberg and Sever (2000). One of the most used measures (values) is the Rep utation QuotientSM that consists of six measures (values). Thus, this study will use CSR disclosure that is variously associated with reputation via the Reputation QuotientSM to determine the relationships between CSR disclosure and CR through value theory. 2.2 Review of the related literature 2.2.1 CSR disclosure and organisational performance Researchers efforts have been made to comprehend the impact of CSR activities on OP (Husted Allen 2000; Husted de Jesus Salazar 2006; Marom 2006; McWilliams Siegel 2001; Moneva, Rivera-Lirio Mu oz-Torres 2007; Orlitzky, Schmidt Rynes 2003; Wright Ferris 1997). The above studies found that there is a relationship between CSR activities, disclosure and OP but which indicates positive, negative, mixed, and non-significant results. On the one hand, some studies found that there is a positive relationship between CSR activities and OP (DeMaCarty 2009; Marom 2006; May Khare 2008; Peloza 2009; Ruf et al. 2001; Saleh, Zulkifli Muhamad 2008; Simpson Kohers 2002; van Beurden Gà ¶ssling 2008; Waddock Graves 1997). Furthermore, Rettab, Brik Mellahi (2009) revealed that there is a positive relationship between CSR activities and OP in developing countries (UAE firms) in Dubai. On the other hand, some studies have reported a negative relationship Vance (1975) and Mackinlay (1997) (as cited in Park Lee 2009) and Wright and Ferris (1997) or no significant relationship (Aupperle et al, 1985; Davidson and Worrell, 1990; Preston, 1978; Spicer, 1980) (as cited in Park Lee 2009); and McWilliams and Siegel (2000) between CSR and OP. However, these findings cannot be generalised from western developed economies to developing countries without further research because of different business systems. In Libya, there is no research about the impact of CSR disclosure on OP. Figure (2) shows the relationship between CSR, disclosure and the factors of estimating OP. 2.2.2 CSR disclosure and financial performance (FP) Financial performance (FP) is considered one of the most important indicators of the strategic value of CSR (Orlitzky, Schmidt Rynes 2003). Researchers started the empirical study of CSR and FP over three decades ago in western countries. There are two types of empirical studies of the relationship between CSR and FP. The first set uses the event study methodology to measure short-term financial impact when companies engage in socially responsible or irresponsible acts (e.g. Hannon Milkovich 1996; Margolis Walsh 2003; McWilliams Siegel 2000; Orlitzky, Schmidt Rynes 2003; Saleh, Zulkifli Muhamad 2008; Wright Ferris 1997). The relationship between CSR and FP was mixed in the results of these studies. For instance, McWilliams Siegel (2000) revealed no relationship, Wright Ferris (1997) found that the relationship between CSR and FP was negative and Saleh, Zulkifli Muhamad (2008) that it was a positive relationship. In addition, Margolis and Walsh (2003) found that 4% of the 16 0 studies examined reported a negative relationship between CSR and FP, 55% a positive relationship, for 22% there was no relationship, and 18% reported a mixed relationship. Furthermore, Orlitzky, Schmidt and Rynes (2003) achieved another meta-analysis and revealed similar results. While other studies are not similarly stable concerning the relationship between CSR and short-term financial return (McWilliams Siegel 2001). The examination of the nature of the relationship between measures for long-term financial performance and measures of CSR is the second set that is used from accounting and financial measures of profitability (e.g. Aguilera et al. 2007; Mahoney Roberts 2007; McGuire, Sundgren Schneeweis 1988; McWilliams Siegel 2000; Simpson Kohers 2002; Waddock Graves 1997). They also gained mixed results in these studies. Waddock Graves (1997) and Simpson Kohers (2002) found a significant positive relationship between CSR and profitability. While McGuire, Sundgren Schneeweis (1988) revealed that subsequent performance was less closely related to CSR than prior performance. Aguilera et al (2007) discuss the relationship between CSR and FP. They found that there is strong evidence for a positive and significant association between them. In addition, McWilliams and Siegel (2000) examined the relationship between two with a regression model that measures financial performance as the dependent v ariable while social performance as the independent variable during the period 1991-1996 for 524 large companies. They concluded that there was no link between CSR and FP if the regression model was properly specified. Moreover, Simpson Kohers (2002) tested the relationship between CSR and FP in the banking industry. The community Reinvestment Act (CRA) was used as a social performance measure. They found that there is a positive relationship between CSR and FP. Griffin Mahon (1997) revealed that the relationship between CSR and FP was mixed between a positive and negative relationship. However, most of the findings found a positive relationship. Furthermore, Moore Robson (2002) analysed the link between CSR and FP of eight firms. They used the derivation of a 16-measure social performance index and a 4-measure financial performance index. They depended on statistically significant results. They found a positive relationship between CSR and FP in spite of small numbers of firms. Mahoney Roberts (2007) also examined the relationship between CSR and FP in a large sample of public companies during four years of panel data in Canada. This study yielded no significant relationship between them. Yet, they revealed a significant relationship between some CSR activities such as environmental and international activities and FP. Finally, Rettab, Brik Mellahi (2009) in the UAE market as an emerging economy conducted the latest study of CSR and FP. They tested the relationship in 280 industries (manufacturing, trading and repairing services, hotels and restaurants, real estate, rental, and business services, education, banking and financial services, mining and quarrying, and others). Although there are some challenges that have contributed to ineffective engagement with stakeholders and the lack of communication of CSR activities, they found a strong positive relationship between CSR and FP. All of the studies above were done in western countries and the US except the Rettab, Brik, and Mellahi study. Rettab, Brik Mellahi (2009) examined the relationship between CSR and FP by questionnaire, while this study will examine the relationship between CSR disclosure through annual reports and FP. This indicates that there is limited research that has investigated CSR disclosure and FP in developing countries. In addition, no known study has examined the relationship between CSR disclosure and FP in Libya. Therefore, this study will attempt to contribute in this area and may facilitate more intensive research on CSR disclosure and FP links outside of western countries and US markets in the future, especially in Libya as a developing and emerging country. Based on the above, this studys hypothesis is that: h3: There is a relationship between CSR disclosure and financial performance (FP) in Libya. 2.2.3 CSR disclosure and employee commitment (EC) Employees are considered one of the most important factors in a firm; they affect an organisation in fundamental ways. Therefore, (Collier, Esteban Street 2007, p. 22). In recent years, employee commitment has been one of the most studied indicators of the strategic value of CSR. Jaworski and Kohli (1993, p 60) (as cited in (Rettab, Brik Mellahi 2009)) employee commitment is defined as: Carroll (1979) suggests that CSR and community contributions reflect the way in which a firm interacts with the physical environment and its ethical stance towards consumers and other external stakeholders. External CSR relates to internal and external information sources including the media and personal experiences within the company which may be expected to base the opinion of their employees about these activities. Employees and managers have a greater stake in the success of the corporation than investor, owners, because their jobs and economic livelihood are at stake (Post 2003). Branco and Rodrigues (2006) suggest that CSR disclosure leads to important results in the creation or deletion of other fundamentally intangible resources, and may help build a positive image with employees and managers. Maignan and Ferrell (2001), Maignan and Ferrell (2004), Backhaus, Stone and Heiner (2002), Brammer, Millington and Rayton (2007), and Peterson (2004) expected that there is a positive r elationship between CSR and EC. Furthermore, Albinger and Freeman (2000), Backhaus, Stone and Heiner (2002), Greening and Turban (2000), Maignan, Ferrell and Hult (1999), and Peterson (2004) revealed that there actually is relationship between CSR and EC. At the same time, the relationship between procedural justice and affective commitment may be expected to be positive because employees may be expected to identify with ethical organizations (Brammer Millington 2005). The existing literature provides compelling empirical support for these arguments; a strong relationship has been found between the ethical climate of organizations and job satisfaction (Koh Boo 2001; Viswesvaran, Deshpande Joseph 1998) and studies about the relationship between organizational commitment and procedural justice suggest that they are positively and significantly related (Albinger Freeman 2000; Backhaus, Stone Heiner 2002; Cohen-Charash Spector 2001; Greening Turban 2000; Meyer et al. 2002; Peters on 2004; Turban Greening 1997). Overall past studies illustrate that a firms social responsibility deal with matter to its employee and expect to have a positive impact on EC (Albinger Freeman 2000; Backhaus, Stone Heiner 2002; Cohen-Charash Spector 2001; Greening Turban 2000; Meyer et al. 2002; Peterson 2004; Turban Greening 1997). These studies also illustrated that a firms social responsibility deals with matters that relate to its employees and can be expected to have a positive impact on employees commitment. In addition, Maignan et al (1999) expected that firms that disclose CSR activities might enjoy enhanced levels of EC for two reasons: they are devoted to ensuring the quality of the workplace experience, and they inform their stakeholders about social issues such as the welfare of the community or the protection of the environment. Rupp et al (2006) noticed that employees perceptions of their firms CSR activities lead their perceptions of the firm. In addition, firms that disclose CSR activities work to ensure their employees protection through fair and socially responsible practices (Rupp et al. 2006). Thus, it can be seen that firms that engage in CSR activities should result in a positive relationship in relation to their EC because they might earn employees commitment compared with firms that do not engage in appropriate CSR activities (Aguilera et al. 2007). In addition, a positive relationship between CSR and FP is more likely to lead a positive relationship between CSR and EC (Rettab, Brik Mellahi 2009). Rettab, Brik and Mellahi (2009) found that there is a positive relationship between CSR and EC in the UAE market. One the other hand, Turker (2009) found that there is no link between CSR to government and the commitment level of employee by using social identity theory. Most of the studies above indicated that there is a positive relationship between CSR and EC, whereas few studies found a negative, insignificant and fixed relationship between them. In addition, there is limited research that has investigated CSR disclosure and EC in developing countries. Furthermore, no known study has examined the relationship between CSR disclosure and EC in Libya. Therefore, the proposed research hypothesis is that: h3: There is a relationship between CSR disclosure and employee commitment (EC) in Libya. 2.2.4 CSR disclosure and corporate reputation (CR) There is significant research which provides evidence to define corporate reputation (CR) as according to Siltaoja (2006, p. 91): CR also is (Neville, Bell Menguc 2005, p. 337). Emerging CSR lead to enhanced corporate reputation whereas non-emerging CSR leads to destroyed CR for a firm. According to McWilliams and Siegel (2001, p. 120) CSR. Similarly, (Battacharya Sen, 2003 as cited in Rettab, Brik Mellahi 2009, p. 377) that shows CSR. Additionally, some companies may employ social responsibility disclosure as one of the informational signals upon which stakeholders base their assessments of CR under conditions of incomplete information (Branco Rodrigues 2006). Also, Branco and Rodrigues (2006) explain that enhancing the effects of CSR in CR is a particularly important aspect of CSR disclosure. In addition, Hooghiemstra (2000) argues that one of the most important communication instruments that is used by firms to enhance, create, and protect their images or reputations is CSR disclosure. Moreover, it is not easy to create a positive reputation without making the associated disclosures for firms investing i n social responsibility activities to realise the value of such reputation (Hasseldine, Salama Toms 2005; Toms 2002). Furthermore, Toms (2002) explains that disclosure in annual reports, disclosure of environmental policies and their implementation were found to contribute explicitly to creating a positive CR. Besides that, Toms (2002), and Hasseldine, Salama and Toms (2005) found that the qualitative nature of environmental disclosure is more important than the quantitative nature of environmental disclosure, and has a strong effect on the creation, enhancement, and protection of CR. Thus, the relationship between CSR disclosure and CR should be clear and positive. However, the relationship between CSR and CR in developing countries as well as emerging economies is not explicit. Although the link between CSR and CR is not straightforward in emerging economies, the link between CSR and EC is observed because employees are able to observe their firms CSR activities, and thus the impact of CSR on corporate reputation can be measured (Rettab, Brik Mellahi 2009). It can be observed in the national media or in the annual report. Communicating effectively a with wide range of stakeholders enables firms to demonstrate their ability to enhance their CR. Therefore, firms operate in accordance with social and ethical criteria; they are able to create a positive reputation, but failing to do so can be a source of risk to their reputation (Branco Rodrigues 2006). The growing attention to reputation has helped to increase a number of different construct measures (Helm 2005). Fombrun (1998) engages six criteria that appear to dominate the construction of reputation in the annual reports: community involvement, employee treatment, product quality, financial performance, environmental performance and organizational issues. Most of these criteria represent some CSR activities. Lewis (2001) lists similar criteria but with an emphasis on responsibility: product quality, customer service, treatment of staff, financial performance, quality of management, environmental responsibility and social responsibility. Schultz, Mouritsen and Gabrielsen (2001) showed the reputation criteria as being based on environmental responsibility, price, human resources, internationalization, financial strength and importance to society. Therefore, all of these criteria affect corporate reputation. Peterson (2004) noted that recent corporate experience in the oil and phar maceuticals industries has emphasized negative consequences for CR which is more likely to flow from inappropriate behaviour towards the environment or consumers. At the same time, Brammer and Millington (2005) have found positive relationships between CR and CSR activities and Hess, Rogovsky and Dunfee (2002) have shown a similar relationship between corporate involvement in social causes and reputation. Also, Clarke and Gibson-Sweet (1999) note that the importance of the use of corporate disclosure is considered an effective factor in the management of reputation and legitimacy. Finally, Rettab, Brik and Mellahi (2009) found that there is a positive relationship between CSR and CR in the UAE market. Most of the studies above were done in western countries and the US except Rettab, Brik, and Mellahis (2009) study. This indicates that there is limited research that has investigated CSR, disclosure and CR in developing countries. In addition, no known study has examined the relationship between CSR, disclosure and CR in Libya. Regarding the conflict about the expected direction of this relationship, this research project hypothesises that: H3: There is a relationship between CSR disclosure and corporate reputation (CR) in Libya. 2.3 Gaps in the literature and the contribution After reviewing the literature, this study identified the following gaps: firstly, all studies evaluating CSR disclosure in Libya have not examined the link between CSR disclosure and OP. In addition, the amount of research is limited that has investigated the impact of CSR disclosure practices on OP either in Australia or internationally especially the relationship bet